When Were Submarines First Used In Ww1

German language submarine of the First or Second World War

U-boats were naval submarines operated past Germany, particularly in the Outset and Second World Wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons confronting enemy naval warships, they were almost effectively used in an economic warfare function (commerce raiding) and enforcing a naval blockade against enemy aircraft. The main targets of the U-boat campaigns in both wars were the merchant convoys bringing supplies from Canada and other parts of the British Empire, and from the United States, to the Uk and (during the Second World War) to the Soviet Union and the Centrolineal territories in the Mediterranean. German submarines also destroyed Brazilian merchant ships during Globe War II, causing Brazil to declare war on both Deutschland and Italia on 22 August 1942.^{[ citation needed ]}

The term is an anglicised version of the High german word U-Boot [ˈuːboːt] ( listen ), a shortening of Unterseeboot ('under-sea-boat'), though the German term refers to whatsoever submarine. Austro-Hungarian Navy submarines were likewise known as U-boats.

Early U-boats (1850–1914) [edit]

The start submarine built in Federal republic of germany, the three-human being Brandtaucher, sank to the bottom of Kiel harbor on 1 February 1851 during a test dive.^[one] ^[2] The inventor and engineer Wilhelm Bauer had designed this vessel in 1850, and Schweffel & Howaldt constructed information technology in Kiel. Dredging operations in 1887 rediscovered Brandtaucher; it was subsequently raised and put on historical brandish in Frg.

At that place followed in 1890 the boats Nordenfelt I and Nordenfelt Ii, built to a Nordenfelt design. In 1903 the Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel completed the first fully functional German-congenital submarine, Forelle,^[iii] which Krupp sold to Russia during the Russo-Japanese State of war in Apr 1904.^[4] The SM U-ane was a completely redesigned Karp-class submarine and only one was built. The Majestic German Navy commissioned it on fourteen Dec 1906.^[5] It had a double hull, a Körting kerosene engine, and a unmarried torpedo tube. The fifty%-larger SM U-2 (commissioned in 1908) had two torpedo tubes. The U-nineteen class of 1912–13 saw the beginning diesel engine installed in a German language navy boat. At the start of Globe War I in 1914, Germany had 48 submarines of 13 classes in service or under construction. During that war the Imperial High german Navy used SM U-ane for grooming. Retired in 1919, it remains on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich.^[vi]

Earth War I (1914–1918) [edit]

On 5 September 1914, HMSPathfinder was sunk by SMU-21, the offset transport to take been sunk by a submarine using a cocky-propelled torpedo. On 22 September, U-ix under the command of Otto Weddigen sank the obsolete British warships HMSAboukir, HMSCressy and HMSHogue (the "Live Bait Squadron") in a single hour.

In the Gallipoli Entrada in early 1915 in the eastern Mediterranean, German language U-boats, notably the U-21, prevented shut back up of centrolineal troops by 18 pre-Dreadnought battleships past sinking two of them.^[seven]

For the beginning few months of the war, U-gunkhole anticommerce actions observed the "prize rules" of the fourth dimension, which governed the treatment of enemy civilian ships and their occupants. On twenty October 1914, SMU-17 sank the first merchant ship, the SSGlitra, off Norway.^[8] Surface commerce raiders were proving to exist ineffective, and on iv February 1915, the Kaiser assented to the annunciation of a war zone in the waters around the British Isles. This was cited as a retaliation for British minefields and shipping blockades. Under the instructions given to U-boat captains, they could sink merchant ships, even potentially neutral ones, without warning.

In February 1915, a submarine U-6 (Lepsius) was rammed and both periscopes were destroyed off Beachy Head by the collier SS Thordis commanded by Captain John Bell RNR after firing a torpedo.^[ix] On vii May 1915, SMU-twenty sank the liner RMS Lusitania. The sinking claimed 1,198 lives, 123 of them American civilians, and the attack of this unarmed civilian ship deeply shocked the Allies.^[x] According to the send's manifest, Lusitania was carrying military cargo, though none of this information was relayed to the citizens of Britain and the Usa who thought that the ship independent no armament or military machine weaponry whatsoever and it was an act of brutal murder.^{[ citation needed ]} Munitions that it carried were thousands of crates full of ammunition for rifles, 3-inch (76 mm) artillery shells, and besides diverse other standard armament used by infantry. The sinking of the Lusitania was widely used as propaganda confronting the German language Empire and caused greater back up for the war effort.^{[ citation needed ]} A widespread reaction in the U.Southward was not seen until the assault on the ferry SSSussex which carried many citizens of the United States of America.

The initial U.S. response was to threaten to sever diplomatic ties, which persuaded the Germans to issue the Sussex pledge that reimposed restrictions on U-boat activity. The U.Southward. reiterated its objections to German submarine warfare whenever U.S. civilians died as a result of High german attacks, which prompted the Germans to fully reapply prize rules. This, nevertheless, removed the effectiveness of the U-boat fleet, and the Germans consequently sought a decisive surface action, a strategy that culminated in the Battle of Jutland.

Although the Germans claimed victory at Jutland, the British Grand Armada remained in command at bounding main. It was necessary to return to effective anticommerce warfare by U-boats. Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer, Commander in Main of the Loftier Seas Armada, pressed for all-out U-boat war, convinced that a high rate of aircraft losses would force Britain to seek an early on peace before the U.s.a. could react effectively.

The renewed High german campaign was effective, sinking 1.4 million tons of shipping between October 1916 and Jan 1917. Despite this, the political situation demanded even greater pressure level, and on 31 January 1917, Germany appear that its U-boats would engage in unrestricted submarine warfare commencement 1 February. On 17 March, German submarines sank iii American merchant vessels, and the U.S. alleged state of war on Germany in April 1917.

Unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was initially very successful, sinking a major part of Britain-jump shipping. With the introduction of escorted convoys, shipping losses declined and in the end, the German strategy failed to destroy sufficient Centrolineal aircraft. An ceasefire became effective on eleven Nov 1918. Of the surviving High german submarines 14 U-boats were scuttled and 122 surrendered.^[11]

Of the 373 German language submarines that had been built, 178 were lost by enemy action. Of these xl were sunk by mines, 30 by depth charges and 13 by Q-ships. 512 officers and 4894 enlisted men were killed. They sank 10 battleships, 18 cruisers and several smaller naval vessels. They farther destroyed five,708 merchant and line-fishing vessels for a full of 11,108,865 tons and the loss of about 15,000 sailors.^[11] The Pour le Mérite, the highest decoration for gallantry for officers, was awarded to 29 U-boat commanders.^[12] 12 U-boat crewmen were decorated with the Goldene Militär-Verdienst-Kreuz, the highest bravery laurels for non-commissioned officers and enlisted men.^[13] The about successful U-boat commanders of World State of war I were Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière (189 merchant vessels and ii gunboats with 446,708 tons), followed by Walter Forstmann (149 ships with 391,607 tons), and Max Valentiner (144 ships with 299,482 tons).^[14] Their records accept not been surpassed in whatsoever subsequent conflict.

Classes [edit]

Körting kerosene-powered boats
- Blazon U 1, Type U 2, Blazon U 3, Blazon U 5, Type U 9, Type U 13, Type U 16, Blazon U 17
Mittel-U Human being diesel boats
- Type U 19, Type U 23, Type U 27, Type U 31, Type U 43, Type U 51, Blazon U 57, Blazon U 63, Type U 66, Type Mittel U
U-Cruisers and Merchant U-boats
- Blazon U 139, Type U 142, Blazon U 151, Type UD 1
UB littoral torpedo assail boats
- Type UB I, Type UB Two, Type UB Iii, Type UF, Blazon UG
UC coastal minelayers
- Type UC I, Type UC II, Type UC III
UE sea minelayers
- Type UE I, Type UE 2

Surrender of the fleet [edit]

Nether the terms of armistice, all U-boats were to immediately surrender. Those in home waters sailed to the British submarine base at Harwich. The entire procedure was washed rapidly and in the chief without difficulty, after which the vessels were studied, so scrapped or given to Allied navies. Stephen King-Hall wrote a detailed eyewitness account of the surrender.^[xv]

Interwar years (1919–1939) [edit]

The Treaty of Versailles ending World War I signed at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 restricted the total tonnage of the German surface armada. The treaty also restricted the independent tonnage of ships and forbade the construction of submarines. All the same, a submarine design office was fix in holland and a torpedo research program was started in Sweden. Before the start of World War 2, Germany started building U-boats and preparation crews, labeling these activities equally "research" or concealing them using other covers. When this became known, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement limited Federal republic of germany to parity with U.k. in submarines. When Globe State of war II started, Deutschland already had 65 U-boats, with 21 of those at sea, ready for war.^[16]

World State of war II (1939–1945) [edit]

During Earth War II, U-boat warfare was the major component of the Battle of the Atlantic, which began in 1939 and ended with Germany'due south surrender in 1945. The Ceasefire of 11 November 1918 ending Earth War I had scuttled near of the old Majestic German Navy and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles of 1919 limited the surface navy of Germany's new Weimar Commonwealth to just vi battleships (of less than ten,000 tons each), six cruisers, and 12 destroyers. To recoup, Germany's new navy, the Kriegsmarine, adult the largest submarine fleet going into World State of war Ii.^[17] British Prime number Government minister Winston Churchill later wrote "The only thing that really frightened me during the war was the U-boat peril."^[eighteen]

In the early stages of the war, the U-boats were extremely effective in destroying Allied aircraft due to the large gap in mid-Atlantic air embrace. Cross-Atlantic merchandise in war supplies and food was extensive and disquisitional for Britain's survival. The continuous activity surrounding British shipping became known as the Battle of the Atlantic, as the British developed technical defences such as ASDIC and radar, and the German U-boats responded by hunting in what were called "wolfpacks" where multiple submarines would stay close together, making information technology easier for them to sink a specific target. United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland's vulnerable shipping state of affairs existed until 1942, when the tides changed every bit the U.S. merchant marine and Navy entered the state of war, drastically increasing the amount of tonnage of supplies sent across the Atlantic. The combination of increased tonnage and increased naval protection of aircraft convoys made it much more difficult for U-boats to make a significant dent in British aircraft. Once the United states of america entered the state of war, U-boats ranged from the Atlantic declension of the United States and Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Arctic to the west and southern African coasts and even as far due east as Penang. The U.South. military engaged in various tactics confronting German incursions in the Americas; these included military surveillance of foreign nations in Latin America, particularly in the Caribbean area, to deter whatsoever local governments from supplying High german U-boats.

Because speed and range were severely limited underwater while running on battery ability, U-boats were required to spend most of their time surfaced running on diesel fuel engines, diving merely when attacked or for rare daytime torpedo strikes. The more than ship-like hull design reflects the fact that these were primarily surface vessels that could submerge when necessary. This contrasts with the cylindrical contour of modern nuclear submarines, which are more hydrodynamic underwater (where they spend the majority of their fourth dimension), but less stable on the surface. While U-boats were faster on the surface than submerged, the contrary is more often than not true of modern submarines. The nigh common U-boat assail during the early on years of the war was conducted on the surface and at night. This period, before the Allied forces developed truly effective antisubmarine warfare tactics, which included convoys, was referred to by German language submariners as "dice glückliche Zeit" or the Showtime Happy Time.^[19]

U-534, Birkenhead Docks, Merseyside, England

Torpedoes [edit]

The U-boats' primary weapon was the torpedo, though mines and deck guns (while surfaced) were also used. By the stop of the state of war, virtually iii,000 Allied ships (175 warships; ii,825 merchant ships) had been sunk by U-boat torpedoes.^[20] Early on High german World War Ii torpedoes were straight runners, every bit opposed to the homing and pattern-running torpedoes that became bachelor later in the war. They were fitted with ane of two types of pistol triggers — touch, which detonated the warhead upon contact with a solid object, and magnetic, which detonated upon sensing a change in the magnetic field within a few meters.

Ane of the most effective uses of magnetic pistols would be to set the torpedo'south depth to just beneath the keel of the target. The explosion under the target's keel would create a detonation shock wave, which could cause a send's hull to rupture nether the concussive water pressure. In this style, fifty-fifty large or heavily armored ships could be sunk or disabled with a single, well-placed hit.

Initially, the depth-keeping equipment and magnetic and contact exploders were notoriously unreliable. During the offset eight months of the war torpedoes often ran at an improper depth, detonated prematurely, or failed to explode altogether—sometimes bouncing harmlessly off the hull of the target send. This was most evident in Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway, where various skilled U-boat commanders failed to inflict damage on British transports and warships because of faulty torpedoes. The faults were largely due to a lack of testing. The magnetic detonator was sensitive to mechanical oscillations during the torpedo run, and to fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field at high latitudes. These early magnetic detonators were eventually phased out, and the depth-keeping trouble was solved by early on 1942 with improved engineering.^[21] ^{[ further caption needed ]}

Later in the war, Germany developed an acoustic homing torpedo, the G7/T5. It was primarily designed to gainsay convoy escorts. The audio-visual torpedo was designed to run straight to an arming distance of 400 one thousand and then turn toward the loudest noise detected. This sometimes concluded up being the U-gunkhole; at least two submarines may have been sunk by their own homing torpedoes. Additionally, these torpedoes were found to exist only constructive against ships moving at greater than xv knots (28 km/h). The Allies countered acoustic torpedoes with noisemaker decoys such equally Foxer, FXR, Cat and Fanfare. The Germans, in plow, countered this by introducing newer and upgraded versions of the acoustic torpedoes, like the late-war G7es, and the T11. Even so, the T11 did not see agile service.^[22]

U-boats likewise adopted several types of "pattern-running" torpedoes that ran straight out to a preset distance, then traveled in either a circular or ladder-like design. When fired at a convoy, this increased the probability of a hit if the weapon missed its primary target.

U-gunkhole developments [edit]

During World State of war II, the Kriegsmarine produced many different types of U-boats every bit technology evolved. Almost notable is the Type VII, known as the "workhorse" of the fleet, which was by far the most-produced type, and the Blazon IX boats, an enlarged VII designed for long-range patrols, some traveling as far as Japan and the eastward declension of the United States.

With the increasing sophistication of Allied detection and subsequent losses, German designers began to fully realise the potential for a truly submerged boat. The Type XXI "Elektroboot" was designed to favor submerged functioning, both for combat effectiveness and survival. It was the first true submersible. The Type XXI featured an evolutionary design that combined several different strands of the U-boat development program, near notably from the Walter U-boats, the Type XVII, which featured an unsuccessful nonetheless revolutionary hydrogen peroxide air-contained propellant system. These boats featured a streamlined hull design, which formed the footing of the later USSNautilus nuclear submarine, and was adapted for use with more conventional propulsion systems. The larger hull design immune for a greatly increased bombardment capacity, which enabled the XXI to cruise submerged for longer periods and reach unprecedented submerged speeds for the fourth dimension. Waste material disposal was a problem when the U-boats spent extended periods without surfacing, as information technology is today.

Throughout the war, an arms race evolved between the Allies and the Kriegsmarine, particularly in detection and counterdetection. Sonar (ASDIC in Britain) immune Allied warships to detect submerged U-boats (and vice versa) beyond visual range, but was not effective confronting a surfaced vessel; thus, early in the state of war, a U-boat at night or in bad weather was actually safer on the surface. Advancements in radar became specially deadly for the U-gunkhole crews, especially once aircraft-mounted units were developed. Equally a countermeasure, U-boats were fitted with radar warning receivers, to give them aplenty time to swoop before the enemy closed in, as well as more anti-shipping guns. Withal, by early on to mid-1943, the Allies switched to centimetric radar (unknown to Germany), which rendered the radar detectors ineffective. U-gunkhole radar systems were also developed, but many captains chose not to use them for fearfulness of dissemination their position to enemy patrols and lack of sufficient electronic countermeasures.

Early on, the Germans experimented with the idea of the Schnorchel (snorkel) from captured Dutch submarines, but saw no demand for them until rather tardily in the war. The Schnorchel was a retractable pipe that supplied air to the diesel fuel engines while submerged at periscope depth, allowing the boats to cruise and recharge their batteries while maintaining a degree of stealth. It was far from a perfect solution, however. Bug occurred with the device's valve sticking shut or closing as it dunked in rough conditions; since the system used the unabridged pressure hull as a buffer, the diesels would instantaneously suck huge volumes of air from the boat'due south compartments, and the crew ofttimes suffered painful ear injuries. Speed was limited to 8 knots (15 km/h), lest the device snap from stress. The Schnorchel also had the outcome of making the gunkhole substantially noisy and deafened in sonar terms. Finally, Allied radar eventually became sufficiently avant-garde that the Schnorchel mast could exist detected beyond visual range.

Several other pioneering innovations included acoustic- and electro-absorbent coatings to make them less of an ASDIC or RADAR target. The Germans also developed agile countermeasures such as facilities to release bogus chemical bubble-making decoys, known as Bold, after the mythical kobold.

Classes [edit]

Blazon I: first prototypes
Type II: small submarines used for training purposes
Type V: uncompleted experimental midget submarines
Blazon VII: the "workhorse" of the U-boats with 709 completed in World State of war II^[23]
Type IX: these long-range U-boats operated as far as the Indian Ocean with the Japanese (Monsun Gruppe), and the South Atlantic
Type X: long-range minelayers and cargo transports
Blazon XI: uncompleted experimental arms boats
Type XIV: used to resupply other U-boats; nicknamed the Milchkuh ("Milk Moo-cow")
Type XVII: modest littoral submarines powered by experimental hydrogen peroxide propulsion systems
Type XXI: known as the Elektroboot; first subs to operate primarily submerged
Blazon XXIII: smaller version of the XXI used for coastal operations
Midget submarines, including Biber, Hai, Molch, and Seehund
Uncompleted U-boat projects

Countermeasures [edit]

Advances in convoy tactics, loftier-frequency direction finding (referred to equally ("Huff-Duff"), radar, active sonar (chosen ASDIC in Britain), depth charges, ASW spigot mortars (also known as "hedgehog"), the intermittent cracking of the German Naval Enigma code, the introduction of the Leigh light, the range of escort shipping (especially with the use of escort carriers), the use of mystery ships, and the total entry of the U.S. into the state of war with its enormous shipbuilding capacity, all turned the tide against the U-boats. In the finish, the U-gunkhole fleet suffered extremely heavy casualties, losing 793 U-boats and nigh 28,000 submariners (a 75% casualty rate, the highest of all High german forces during the war).

At the same time, the Allies targeted the U-boat shipyards and their bases with strategic bombing.

Enigma machine [edit]

The British had a major advantage in their ability to read some German language naval Enigma codes. An agreement of the German coding methods had been brought to Great britain via France from Smooth lawmaking-breakers. Thereafter, code books and equipment were captured by raids on German conditions ships and from captured U-boats. A team including Alan Turing used special purpose "Bombes" and early on computers to intermission new German codes as they were introduced. The speedy decoding of messages was vital in directing convoys away from wolf packs and allowing interception and destruction of U-boats. This was demonstrated when the Naval Enigma machines were altered in February 1942 and wolf-pack effectiveness profoundly increased until the new code was broken.

The German submarineU-110, a Type IXB, was captured in 1941 by the Royal Navy, and its Enigma auto and documents were removed. U-559 was also captured past the British in October 1942; three sailors boarded her as she was sinking, and desperately threw all the code books out of the submarine and then every bit to salvage them. Two of them, Able Seaman Colin Grazier and Lieutenant Francis Anthony Blair Fasson, continued to throw code books out of the send as information technology went nether water, and went downwardly with it. Further code books were captured past raids on atmospheric condition ships. U-744 was boarded by crew from the Canadian send HMCSChilliwack on 6 March 1944, and codes were taken from her, only by this fourth dimension in the war, nearly of the information was known.^[24] The U-505, a Type IXC, was captured by the The states Navy in June 1944. It is at present a museum ship in Chicago at the Museum of Science and Industry.

Battle of Bell Island [edit]

2 events in the boxing took place in 1942 when High german U-boats attacked four allied ore carriers at Bell Isle, Newfoundland. The carriers SSSaganaga and SSLord Strathcona were sunk by U-513 on five September 1942, while the SSRosecastle and PLM 27 were sunk by U-518 on 2 November with the loss of 69 lives. When the submarine launched a torpedo at the loading pier, Bell Isle became the only location in North America to be subject to direct set on by German language forces in World State of war Two.

Operation Deadlight [edit]

"Performance Deadlight" was the code name for the scuttling of U-boats surrendered to the Allies subsequently the defeat of Germany well-nigh the end of the state of war. Of the 154 U-boats surrendered, 121 were scuttled in deep water off Lisahally, Northern Republic of ireland, or Loch Ryan, Scotland, in tardily 1945 and early 1946.

Memorial [edit]

Post–Earth War Two and Cold War (after 1945) [edit]

From 1955, the Due west German Bundesmarine was allowed to have a small navy. Initially, ii sunken Blazon XXIIIs and a Type XXI were raised and repaired. In the 1960s, the Germany (West Germany) re-entered the submarine concern. Because West Germany was initially restricted to a 450-tonne displacement limit, the Bundesmarine focused on small coastal submarines to protect against the Soviet threat in the Baltic Ocean. The Germans sought to apply avant-garde technologies to offset the minor displacement, such every bit amagnetic steel to protect against naval mines and magnetic anomaly detectors.

The initial Type 201 was a failure considering of hull cracking; the subsequent Type 205, first commissioned in 1967, was a success, and 12 were built for the German language navy. To continue the U-boat tradition, the new boats received the archetype "U" designation starting with the U-1.

With the Danish government'southward purchase of two Type 205 boats, the Westward German language authorities realized the potential for the submarine as an export, developing a customized version Type 207. Small-scale and agile submarines were congenital during the Common cold State of war to operate in the shallow Baltic Bounding main resulting in the Type 206. Three of the improved Type 206 boats were later on sold to the Israeli Navy, becoming the Type 540. The German Type 209 diesel-electric submarine was the most popular export-sales submarine in the earth from the late 1960s into the first years of the 21st century. With a larger 1,000–ane,500 tonne displacement, the grade was very customizable and has seen service with xiv navies with 51 examples existence built as of 2006. Germany would continue to reap successes with derivations or on the basis of the successful type 209, every bit are the Blazon 800 sold to Israel and the TR-1700 sold to Argentina.

Frg would go along to succeed every bit an exporter of submarines as the Klasse 210 sold to Norway, considered the almost silent and maneuverable submarines in the world. This would demonstrate its capacity and put its export seal on the world.

Frg has brought the U-boat name into the 21st century with the new Type 212. The 212 features an air-independent propulsion arrangement using hydrogen fuel cells. This system is safer than previous airtight-cycle diesel fuel engines and steam turbines, cheaper than a nuclear reactor and quieter than either. While the Type 212 is also being purchased past Italy^[25] and Norway,^[26] the Blazon 214 has been designed as the follow-on export model and has been sold to Hellenic republic, Republic of korea, Turkey, and based on information technology would get the Type U 209PN sold to Portugal.

In recent years Frg introduced new models such equally the Type 216 and the Type 218 the latter being sold to Singapore.

In 2016, Germany commissioned its newest U-gunkhole, the U-36, a Type 212.

References [edit]

^ Showell, p. 23
^ Compare: Chaffin, Tom (2010). The H. L. Hunley: The Secret Hope of the Confederacy. Macmillan. p. 53. ISBN9781429990356 . Retrieved 14 July 2016. Bauer's boat made a promising outset, diving in tests in the Baltic Sea's Bay of Kiel to depths of more than 50 feet. In 1855, during one of those tests, the gunkhole malfunctioned. The Brandtaucher plunged 50-iv vertical anxiety and refused to ascend from the seafloor. Bauer and his crew – leaving their arts and crafts on the bottom – barely escaped with their crew-mates lives.
^ Showell, p. 201
^ Showell, pp. 22, 23, 25, 29
^ Showell, p. 30
^ Showell, pp. 36 & 37
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 December 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2008. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived re-create every bit championship (link)
^ "WWI U-Boats U-17". Uboat.net. Retrieved 24 March 2008.
^ Haley Dixon (21 June 2013). "Story of Captain's backbone resurfaces subsequently 98 years". Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
^ Kramer, Andrew E.; Prickett, Ivor (viii April 2022). "Russian Blunders in Chernobyl: 'They Came and Did Any They Wanted.'". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
^ ^a ^b Micheal Clodfelter (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland. p. 428.
^ "Military decorations - U-boat Commanders - High german and Austrian U-boats of World War One - Kaiserliche Marine - uboat.net". uboat.net.
^ Bruno Fischer, Ehrenbuch des Orden vom Militär-Verdienst-Kreuz e.5. und die Geschichte der Ordens-Gemeinschaft, Die Ordens-Sammlung, 1960, p. 16
^ "Almost Successful U-boat commanders - High german and Austrian U-boats of Earth State of war I - Kaiserliche Marine - uboat.net". uboat.net.
^ King-Hall, Stephen (19 May 2021). "A North Bounding main diary, 1914-1918 / Commander Stephen King-Hall". London, [Eng.] : Newnes – via Internet Annal.
^ "NOVA Online | Hitler'south Lost Sub | Map of Lost U-Boats (frameless)". www.pbs.org . Retrieved 25 Apr 2019.
^ Hakim, Joy (1998). A History of U.s.: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford Academy Press. pp. 100–104. ISBN0-19-509514-half-dozen.
^ Churchill 2005, p. 529. sfn error: no target: CITEREFChurchill2005 (aid)
^ "Military History Online". www.militaryhistoryonline.com . Retrieved 4 Feb 2019.
^ Crocker 3, H. Westward. (2006). Don't Tread on Me . New York: Crown Forum. p. 310. ISBN978-1-4000-5363-half dozen.
^ Karl Dönitz (1990). Memoirs: Ten Years and Twenty Days. Naval Plant Press. p. 482. ISBN0-87021-780-1.
^ "The Torpedoes - Technical pages - German language U-boats of WWII - Kriegsmarine - uboat.cyberspace". uboat.net.
^ Stern, Robert Cecil (1991). Type VII U-boats (First U.South. & Canada ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 155. ISBN1-55750-828-3 . Retrieved 1 Jan 2019.
^ Helgason, Gudmundur. "Captured U Boats". uboat.net.
^ "Naval Technology on the Todaro class". Retrieved nine March 2019.
^ Berg Bentzrød, Sveinung (3 February 2017). "Forsvaret kjøper nye ubåter fra Tyskland" [The Armed forces are purchasing new submarines from Germany]. Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Oslo: Aftenposten Every bit. Retrieved 9 March 2019.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to U-boat.

TheSubPen The Sub "Pen," your abode for submarine and U-boat history.
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ubootwaffe.net Comprehensive reference source for WW Two U-gunkhole information.
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U-112 and U-53 Submarine Collection at Dartmouth College Library